Intertestamental Period Survey

It bridges the Old and New Testaments.

Author: Kenneth Malenge

BIBLE SURVEY – INTERTESTAMENTAL HISTORY

(The 400 Silent Years: From Malachi to Matthew)

1. Introduction

The Intertestamental Period refers to the roughly 400 years between the close of the Old Testament (Book of Malachi, c. 430 B.C.) and the opening of the New Testament (the birth of Christ, c. 4–6 B.C.). This period is often called “the Silent Years” because no inspired prophet arose during this time. However, God was actively preparing the world for the coming of the Messiah.

2. Political Developments

1. The Persian Period (c. 539–331 BC)

Overview: The Jews had returned from Babylonian exile under Cyrus the Great (Ezra 1). Persia allowed them to rebuild Jerusalem and the temple.
Political Features:
- Persia ruled through governors (e.g., Nehemiah in Neh. 2).
- Jews were granted local autonomy under high priests.
- Heavy taxation but relative peace.
Impact:
- Restoration of the Jewish homeland.
- The rise of the synagogue system during the Diaspora.
- Expectation of a Messiah began to deepen under foreign rule.

2. The Greek Period (c. 331–167 BC)

a. Alexander the Great (331–323 BC)

Defeated Persia, spreading Greek (Hellenistic) culture across the empire.
Jews were treated fairly but Greek language and customs became dominant.
Impact: The Old Testament was translated into Greek (the Septuagint, LXX), making Scripture accessible to the wider world.

b. The Ptolemaic Rule (323–198 BC)

After Alexander’s death, his empire was divided. The Ptolemies of Egypt controlled Judea.
Jews enjoyed freedom in religion but were heavily taxed.

c. The Seleucid Rule (198–167 BC)

The Seleucids of Syria took control under Antiochus III, initially tolerant.
Later, Antiochus IV Epiphanes persecuted Jews severely:
- Outlawed Jewish practices (circumcision, Sabbath, sacrifices).
- Desecrated the temple by offering swine to Zeus (the “abomination of desolation”).
Impact: Led to the Maccabean Revolt (167–164 BC).

3. The Maccabean/Hasmonean Period (167–63 BC)

Led by Mattathias and his sons (especially Judas Maccabeus).
Achieved Jewish independence for about 100 years.
Political Features:
- Temple rededicated in 164 BC (Hanukkah festival originates here).
- Expansion of Jewish territory.
- Priests became both religious and political leaders, causing corruption.
Impact: Jewish nationalism and divisions among groups (Pharisees, Sadducees, Essenes, Zealots).

4. The Roman Period (63 BC onward)

In 63 BC, Pompey the Great conquered Jerusalem, making Judea a Roman client state.
Herod the Great (37–4 BC) was installed as “King of the Jews”:
- A skilled but cruel ruler.
- Renovated and expanded the temple magnificently.
- Ordered massacre of infants (Matt. 2:16).
After Herod’s death, his kingdom was divided among his sons.
Roman governors (like Pontius Pilate) later ruled Judea directly.

Political Features under Rome:

Heavy taxation and economic burden on Jews.
Roman soldiers stationed in Judea; unrest and revolts common.
Jewish longing for deliverance from Rome made them expect a political Messiah.
Roads, language (Greek), and governance of Rome created conditions for the spread of the Gospel.

5. Summary of Political Significance

Persia: Allowed return and rebuilding of temple.
Greece: Unified language and culture for spreading the Gospel.
Maccabees: Preserved Jewish religion and identity.
Rome: Brought order, infrastructure, and political oppression that sharpened Messianic hope.

Key Theological Reflection:
God sovereignly used political empires to prepare the world for Christ. Daniel’s prophecies (Dan. 2; 7–8; 11) foretold these kingdoms, showing that history was moving toward the coming of the “stone cut without hands” (Dan. 2:44)—Christ’s eternal kingdom.

3. Religious Developments

1. The Jewish Sects

a. Pharisees

Origin: Emerged during the Maccabean era (2nd century B.C.) as a lay movement committed to keeping the Law.
Beliefs:
- Strong emphasis on the written Law (Torah) and oral traditions (later compiled as the Mishnah).
- Believed in angels, demons, resurrection, and future judgment.
- Practiced separation from anything considered unclean.
Influence:
- Popular among the common people.
- Often opposed Jesus for elevating traditions above God’s Word (Mark 7:6–13).

b. Sadducees

Origin: Aristocratic priestly families, connected to the Temple and political power.
Beliefs:
- Accepted only the Torah (first five books) as authoritative.
- Denied resurrection, angels, and eternal punishment (Acts 23:8).
- Cooperated with Rome to maintain their influence.
Influence: Controlled the Temple priesthood and the Sanhedrin’s leadership.

c. Essenes

Origin: Formed in reaction to corruption in priesthood and Temple.
Beliefs:
- Lived in strict, isolated communities (possibly linked to Qumran).
- Practiced ritual purity, celibacy, and communal life.
- Awaited two Messiahs—one priestly, one kingly.
Influence: Not mentioned directly in NT, but their writings (Dead Sea Scrolls) illuminate Jewish expectations of the Messiah.

d. Zealots

Origin: A radical political group opposed to Roman rule.
Beliefs:
- Advocated violent rebellion against Rome.
- Believed God alone was Israel’s ruler.
Influence: One of Jesus’ disciples, Simon, was a Zealot (Luke 6:15). Their revolts ultimately led to Jerusalem’s destruction in A.D. 70.

e. Herodians

Origin: Political party supportive of Herod’s dynasty.
Beliefs: Prioritized political loyalty over spiritual purity.
Influence: Mentioned in the NT as opponents of Christ (Mark 3:6).

2. The Sanhedrin

The Jewish ruling council (70 elders + the high priest).
Functioned as the highest religious and political authority under Rome.
Controlled matters of the Law, Temple worship, and judgment of religious disputes.
Both Pharisees and Sadducees were represented, though Sadducees dominated.

3. Synagogue Development

Because many Jews lived outside Palestine (Diaspora), the synagogue became central.
Functions:
- Place of Scripture reading and teaching.
- Prayer and community gatherings.
- Local leadership without sacrifices (since sacrifices were limited to the Temple in Jerusalem).
Significance in NT: Paul and others often began ministry in synagogues (Acts 13:14–16).

4. The Scriptures and Writings

a. The Septuagint (LXX)

Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures (c. 250–150 B.C.).
Widely used by Jews outside Palestine.
Frequently quoted in the NT by Jesus and the apostles.

b. The Apocrypha

Religious writings from the period (e.g., 1–2 Maccabees, Tobit, Wisdom of Solomon).
Helpful historically and culturally but not inspired.
Accepted in the Roman Catholic canon but rejected by Jews and Protestants.

c. Oral Traditions

The Pharisees especially elevated oral interpretations of the Law.
These traditions later formed the basis of the Mishnah and Talmud.

5. Messianic Expectation

Oppression under foreign powers heightened the Jewish hope for a Deliverer.
Different expectations existed:
- A political Messiah who would overthrow Rome.
- A priestly Messiah to purify worship.
- A prophetic Messiah to restore truth.
These varied expectations explain why many did not recognize Jesus, who came as the suffering Servant (Isaiah 53).

6. Religious Climate at the Coming of Christ

Religion was marked by legalism, sectarian divisions, and ritualism.
The Temple was magnificent under Herod, but worship was often empty and corrupt.
The voice of prophecy was absent, yet the people were longing for God’s intervention.
John the Baptist’s ministry (Luke 3:2–6) was therefore a shock of divine light in a spiritually dark age.

Summary

The Intertestamental religious history reveals a Judaism fragmented into sects, burdened by legalism, but united by hope in God’s promises. These developments explain much of the New Testament context: Jesus confronting Pharisees, the Sadducees denying resurrection, Paul using synagogues, and the longing for a Messiah. God used this period to prepare the stage for the arrival of Christ, the true fulfillment of Israel’s hopes.

4. Cultural Developments

1. Jewish Society and Daily Life

Agriculture and Economy:
- Most Jews lived as farmers, shepherds, craftsmen, or small traders.
- Heavy taxation by foreign powers (Persians, Greeks, Romans) burdened the poor.
- Land was precious and often lost through debt, creating social inequality.
Family Life:
- Patriarchal structure (father as head).
- Marriage was central, often arranged, and children were seen as blessings.
- Extended families lived together, strengthening kinship ties.
Education:
- By the end of this period, synagogue schools emerged.
- Boys learned Torah, traditions, and practical skills.
- Literacy increased due to emphasis on Scripture.

2. Cultural Influences

Hellenism (Greek Influence):
- Greek language became universal; even many Jews spoke Greek.
- Greek philosophy, arts, and customs spread widely.
- Jews wrestled with cultural assimilation: some embraced Greek ways, others resisted.
Jewish Resistance Movements:
- Pharisees emphasized separation from Greek/Roman culture by strict law-keeping.
- Sadducees cooperated more with foreign rulers, adopting some Greek customs.
- Essenes withdrew from society, living in isolated communities (e.g., Qumran).
- Zealots took a militant stance, fighting foreign domination.
Diaspora Jews:
- Many Jews lived outside Palestine (Egypt, Asia Minor, Rome).
- They built synagogues, maintaining cultural identity while adapting to local environments.
- The Greek Old Testament (Septuagint) was widely used among them.

3. Religious-Social Institutions

Synagogue:
- Became the central place for worship, teaching, and community life.
- Every town with 10 or more Jewish men usually had a synagogue.
- It preserved Jewish faith in the absence of the temple during exile and after.
Temple:
- Rebuilt under Zerubbabel, later magnificently expanded by Herod the Great.
- Central for sacrifices, festivals, and pilgrimages (Passover, Pentecost, Tabernacles).
- Priests and Levites oversaw temple worship; High Priest held both religious and political influence.
Festivals:
- Jewish feasts continued, with Hanukkah (Festival of Lights) added after the Maccabean rededication of the temple.
- Festivals were not only religious but also social gatherings, reinforcing unity.

4. Class Divisions

Priestly Aristocracy (Sadducees): Wealthy, influential, cooperated with foreign powers.
Pharisees: Respected by the common people for devotion to the law.
Scribes and Rabbis: Teachers of the law, interpreters of Scripture.
Common People: Farmers, fishermen, laborers — often oppressed by taxes.
Outcasts: Tax collectors, Samaritans, lepers, and Gentiles — marginalized but later reached by Jesus.

5. Cultural Tensions

Jew vs. Samaritan Hostility:
- Samaritans (descendants of mixed marriages during Assyrian exile) had their own temple on Mount Gerizim.
- Jews considered them impure and avoided contact (John 4:9).
Jew vs. Gentile Separation:
- Jews avoided intermarriage, foreign food, and idol practices.
- Strict purity laws kept Jews distinct, but also created tension in a Greco-Roman world.

6. Social and Cultural Significance for the New Testament

Synagogues provided a platform for Jesus and the apostles to preach (Luke 4:16; Acts 13:14).
Greek language and culture allowed the Gospel to spread quickly across nations.
Social unrest and longing for deliverance made Jews receptive to a Messiah.
Class tensions explain why Jesus reached out especially to the poor, outcasts, and marginalized.
Jewish identity was preserved despite foreign rule, keeping alive the hope of God’s promises.

Theological Reflection:
The intertestamental social and cultural scene set the stage for the Gospel: a world longing for justice, fractured by divisions, and yet unified by common language and institutions. Into this broken and expectant world, Christ came “in the fullness of time” (Gal. 4:4).

5. Spiritual Significance

Though “silent,” this period was one of divine preparation:

The world had one common language (Greek) → allowed the Gospel to spread quickly.
The Roman Empire’s stability and roads → missionaries could travel safely.
The synagogues → gave missionaries ready audiences familiar with Scripture.
The Jewish longing for a Messiah → created anticipation fulfilled in Christ.

6. Summary

The Intertestamental Period was not a time of divine inactivity, but of divine preparation. God was orchestrating history—politically, culturally, and religiously—for the fullness of time (Galatians 4:4) when Christ would come.

Kenneth Malenge

The 400 Years of Silence